CITIES AND PLACES VISITED IN ISRAEL - 2018

HEBRON (alliance)— the name of two cities and two men in the Bible: 1. A city situated 31 kilometers (19 miles) southwest of Jerusalem on the road to Beersheba. Although it lies in a slight valley, the city is 927 meters (3,040 feet) above sea level, which makes it the highest town in Palestine.

Originally Hebron was called Kirjath Arba (Gen. 23: 2). Numbers 13: 22 speaks of Hebron being built seven years before Zoan in Egypt. This probably refers to the rebuilding of the city by the Hyksos rulers of Egypt. The twelve Hebrew spies viewed Hebron on their mission to explore the Promised Land. The area surrounding Hebron is rich in biblical history.

Abram spent much of his time in Mamre in the area of Hebron (Gen. 13: 18). He was living in Mamre when the confederacy of kings overthrew the CITIES OF THE PLAIN and captured Lot (Gen. 14: 1– 13). Here, too, Abram’s name was changed to Abraham (Gen. 17: 5). At Hebron the angels revealed to Abraham that he would have a son who would be called Isaac (Gen. 18: 1– 15). Later, Sarah died at Hebron (Gen. 23: 2);

Abraham bought the cave of MACHPELAH as her burial place (Gen. 23: 9). The present mosque built over the cave is called Haran el-Khalil, “the sacred precinct of the friend (of God),” reminiscent of a title given to Abraham in 2 Chr. 20: 7; Is. 41: 8; Jas. 2: 23.

During the period of the conquest of the land of Canaan, Joshua killed the king of Hebron (Josh. 10: 3– 27). Later, Caleb drove out the Anakim and claimed Hebron for his inheritance (Josh. 14: 12– 15). Hebron was also designated as one of the CITIES OF REFUGE (Josh. 20: 7). David ruled from Hebron the first seven years of his reign (2 Sam. 2: 11), after which he established Jerusalem as his capital. When Absalom rebelled against his father David, he made Hebron his headquarters (2 Sam. 15: 7– 12). King Rehoboam fortified the city to protect his southern border (2 Chr. 11: 10– 12).

The discovery of five jar handles stamped with the royal seal dating from the eighth century B.C. testifies that Hebron was a key storage city, perhaps for rations of Uzziah’s army (2 Chr. 26: 10).

SHECHEM (shoulder)— the name of a city and three men in the Bible: 1. An ancient fortified city in central Canaan and the first capital of the northern kingdom of Israel (see Map 4, B– 3). Its name means “shoulder,” probably because the city was built mainly on the slope, or shoulder, of Mount Ebal.

Situated where main highways and ancient trade routes converged, Shechem was an important city long before the Israelites occupied Canaan. The city has been destroyed and rebuilt several times through the centuries. Shechem is first mentioned in connection with Abraham’s journey into the land of Canaan. When Abraham eventually came to Shechem, the Lord appeared to him and announced that this was the land He would give to Abraham’s descendants (Gen. 12: 6). This fulfilled God’s promise to Abraham at the time of his call (Gen. 12: 1– 3). In response, Abraham built his first altar to the Lord in Canaan at Shechem (Gen. 12: 7).

Because of this incident, Shechem is an important place in the religious history of the Hebrew people. Upon his return from Padan Aram, Jacob, a grandson of Abraham, also built an altar to the Lord at Shechem (Gen. 33: 18– 20). This marked Jacob’s safe return to the Promised Land from the land of self-imposed exile. According to Jewish tradition, Jacob dug a deep well here (John 4: 12). Jacob’s Well is one of the few sites visited by Jesus that is identifiable today.

After the Israelites conquered Canaan under the leadership of Joshua, an altar was built at Shechem. Its building was accompanied by a covenant ceremony in which offerings were given and the blessings and curses of the Law were recited (Josh. 8: 30– 35). This was done in obedience to the command of Moses, given earlier in Deuteronomy 27: 12– 13.

Because Shechem was situated between Mount Ebal and Mount Gerizim, this covenant ceremony took on a symbolic meaning. To this day Mount Gerizim is forested while Mount Ebal is barren. Thus the blessings of faithfully keeping the covenant were proclaimed from Mount Gerizim, while the curses of breaking the covenant were proclaimed from Mount Ebal.

At the close of his life, Joshua gathered the tribes of Israel at Shechem. Here he reviewed God’s gracious dealings with Israel and performed a covenant-renewing ceremony on behalf of the nation. He closed his speech with his famous statement, “Choose for yourselves this day whom you will serve… but as for me and my house, we will serve the LORD” (Josh. 24: 15).

The significance of Shechem in Israel’s history continued into the period of the Divided Kingdom. Rehoboam, successor to King Solomon, went to Shechem to be crowned king over all Israel (1 Kin. 12: 1). Later, when the nation divided into two kingdoms, Shechem became the first capital of the northern kingdom of Israel (1 Kin. 12: 25).

Samaria eventually became the permanent political capital of the Northern Kingdom, but Shechem retained its religious importance. It apparently was a sanctuary for worship of God in Hosea’s time in the eighth century B.C. (Hos. 6: 9). At Shechem (sometimes identified with Sychar) Jesus visited with the Samaritan woman at Jacob’s Well (John 4).

The SAMARITANS had built their temple on Mount Gerizim, where they practiced their form of religion. To this outcast woman of a despised sect Jesus offered salvation. This is a vivid example of the truth that the gospel of Christ is meant for all people.

2. A son of Hamor, a Hivite prince (Gen. 33: 19; 34: 1– 31). Shechem raped Dinah, the daughter of Jacob. When Shechem later wanted to marry her, Dinah’s half-brothers, Simeon and Levi, agreed to give Shechem permission only if “every male of you is circumcised” (Gen. 34: 15). When Hamor, Shechem, and their followers agreed to the procedure, Simeon and Levi killed them before the circumcision operations had healed.

BETHEL (house of God)— the name of two cities in the Old Testament: 1. A city of Canaan about 19 kilometers (12 miles) north of Jerusalem (see Map 3, B– 4). Bethel is mentioned more often in the Bible than any other city except Jerusalem. It is first mentioned in connection with Abraham, who “pitched his tent with Bethel on the west and.  .  . built an altar to the LORD” (Gen. 12: 8; 13: 3).

The region around Bethel is still suitable for grazing by livestock. Jacob, Abraham’s grandson, had a life-changing experience at this site. He had a vision of a staircase reaching into the heavens with the angels of God “ascending and descending on it” (Gen. 28: 12). Jacob called the name of that place Bethel, “the house of God” (Gen. 28: 19). He erected a pillar at Bethel to mark the spot of his vision (Gen. 28: 22; 31: 13).

Jacob later built an altar at Bethel, where he worshiped the Lord (Gen. 35: 1– 16).

After the death of Solomon and the division of his kingdom, Jeroboam, the king of Israel (the Northern Kingdom), set up two calves of gold, one in Bethel and one in Dan (1 Kin. 12: 29, 32– 33). Thus, Bethel became a great center of idolatry (1 Kin. 13: 1– 32; 2 Kin. 10: 29) and the chief sanctuary of Israel (Amos 7: 13), rivaling the temple in Jerusalem.

The prophets Jeremiah and Amos denounced Bethel for its idolatries (Jer. 48: 13; Amos 5: 5– 6). Hosea, deploring its great wickedness (Hos. 10: 5, 15), called it BETH AVEN “ house of idols” because of the golden calf set up there.

Bethel, the house of God, had deteriorated into Beth Aven, the house of idols. In a religious reformation that sought to restore the true worship of God, King Josiah broke down the altar at Bethel (2 Kin. 23: 15). Still later in Israel’s history, Bethel was occupied by Jewish people who returned from the captivity in Babylon with Zerubbabel (Ezra 2: 28; Neh. 7: 32).

Today the site of Bethel is occupied by a small village called Beitin. The New Testament does not refer to Bethel, but Jesus must have gone through this area on His trips. The city was situated on the main road from Shechem to Jerusalem.

BETH SHAN — a city at the junction of the Jezreel and Jordan valleys. Beth Shan shows evidence of occupation from prehistoric times throughout the biblical period. Archaeologists unearthed eighteen separate levels of occupation. This continuous occupation probably was due to natural and geographic factors.

The many springs in the area, combined with the intense heat that is characteristic of the Jordan Valley, made Beth Shan a garden paradise. Beth Shan’s location at the crossroads of Canaan’s two great valleys meant that all traffic through Canaan— from Egypt to Damascus and from the Mediterranean coast to the East— had to pass by the city.

After the Egyptian pharaoh Thutmose III’s victory at MEGIDDO (about 1482 B.C.), the fortress at Beth Shan passed into Egyptian hands for three centuries. Joshua was unable to capture Beth Shan; his infantry could not cope with its iron chariots (Josh. 17: 16).

Later, the Philistines occupied the city; and after Saul’s tragic last battle near Mount Gilboa, the Philistines “put his armor in the temple of ASHTAROTH as an offering and “fastened his body to the wall of Beth Shan” (1 Sam. 31: 10).

That Israel eventually gained control of the city is evidenced by the garrison that Solomon kept here (1 Kin. 4: 12). In some places the name occurs as Beth Shean (Josh. 17: 11, 16; Judg. 1: 27).

During the intertestamental period, the name of Beth Shan was changed to Scythopolis (city of Scythians), which Josephus called the largest of the DECAPOLIS, perhaps meaning it was the capital. In spite of its importance, this city is not mentioned in the New Testament.

TIBERIUS (son of the Tiber)— Tiberius Claudius Nero Caesar (42 B.C.— A.D. 37), the second emperor of Rome (A.D. 14– 37). The adopted son and son-in-law of Octavian (Augustus Caesar), Tiberius succeeded Augustus as emperor. Tiberius is mentioned by name only once in the Bible. Luke 3: 1 states that John the Baptist began his ministry “in the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberius Caesar,” or A.D. 28.

Luke 3: 1 is very important in helping to establish the chronology of the life and ministry of Jesus. Tiberius is also frequently referred to simply as “Caesar” (Luke 23: 2; John 19: 12, 15). The Pharisees and Herodians sought to entrap Jesus by asking him a question concerning tribute to Caesar: “Tell us…is it lawful to pay taxes to Caesar, or not?” The “Caesar” in question is Tiberius, and the coin they brought to Jesus bore Tiberius’ image (Matt. 22: 15– 22; Mark 12: 13– 17; Luke 20: 20– 26).

Jesus began his ministry and was crucified during the reign of Tiberius. Born in Rome on November 16, 42 B.C., Tiberius became emperor in his fifty-fifth year and reigned for twenty-three years, until his death in March, A.D. 37, at the age of seventy-eight. Some historians believe that Caligula, the mad successor to Tiberius, hastened Tiberius’ death. The city of TIBERIAS, on the Sea of Galilee, was built in the emperor’s honor, about 20 B.C., by Herod, Roman governor of Galilee and Perea.

SEA OF GALILEE— a freshwater lake, fed by the Jordan River, which was closely connected with the earthly ministry of Jesus. This “sea” is called by four different names in the Bible: the “Sea of Chinnereth” [or “Chinneroth”] (the Hebrew word for “harp-shaped,” the general outline of the lake; Num. 34: 11; Josh. 12: 3; 13: 27).

The “Lake of Gennesaret” (Luke 5: 1), taking the name from the fertile Plain of Gennesaret that lies on the northwest (Matt. 14: 34.

The “Sea of Tiberias” (John 6: 1; 21: 1), because of its association with the capital of Herod Antipas.

The “Sea of Galilee” (Matt. 4: 18; Mark 1: 16).

Situated some 98 kilometers (60 miles) north of Jerusalem, the Sea of Galilee contains fresh water since it is fed by the Jordan. The lake itself is the deepest part of the northern Jordan Rift and thus the water collects there before it flows on its way. The surface of Galilee is about 230 meters (700 feet) below the Mediterranean Sea.

The floor of the lake is another 25 to 50 meters (80 to 160 feet) lower. The lake itself is nearly 21 kilometers (13 miles) long and 13 kilometers (8 miles) wide at Magdala, the point of its greatest width. The lake is surrounded, except on the southern side, by steep cliffs and sharply rising mountains.

On the east these mountains rise to the fertile Golan Heights as high as 900 meters (2,700 feet). As a result of this formation, cool winds frequently rush down these slopes and unexpectedly stir up violent storms on the warm surface of the lake. Waves such as these were easily calmed at the command of Jesus (Mark 4: 35– 41).

A fishing industry thrived on the Sea of Galilee. Jesus called His first disciples— Peter, Andrew, James, and John— from that industry (1:16– 20).

In spite of the steep hillsides around the lake, nine cities of 15,000 population or more thrived in the first century as part of an almost continuous belt of settlements around the lake. Of these cities, Bethsaida, Tiberias, and Capernaum were the most important. On and around the Sea of Galilee Jesus performed most of His 33 recorded miracles and issued most of His teachings to His disciples and the multitudes that followed Him.

NAZARETH (watchtower)— a town of lower Galilee where Jesus spent His boyhood years (Matt. 2: 23). For centuries Nazareth has been a beautifully secluded town nestled in the southernmost hills of the Lebanon Mountain range.

Situated in the territory belonging to Zebulun, the city must have been of late origin or of minor importance. It is never mentioned in the Old Testament. Nazareth lay close to the important trade routes of Palestine. It overlooked the Plain of Esdraelon through which caravans passed as they traveled from Gilead to the south and west.

North of the city was the main road from Ptolemais to the Decapolis, a road over which the Roman legions frequently traveled. This fact may account for the possible source of the name Nazareth in the Aramaic word meaning “watchtower.” However, Nazareth itself was situated in something of a basin, a high valley about 366 meters (1,200 feet) above sea level overlooking the Esdraelon valley. To the north and east were steep hills, while on the west the hills rose to an impressive 488 meters (1,600 feet).

Nazareth, therefore, was somewhat secluded and isolated from nearby traffic. This apparent isolation of Nazareth as a frontier town on the southern border of Zebulun contributed to the reputation that Nazareth was not an important part of the national and religious life of Israel. This, coupled with a rather bad reputation in morals and religion and a certain crudeness in the Galilean dialect, prompted Nathanael, when he first learned of Jesus of Nazareth, to ask, “Can anything good come out of Nazareth?” (John 1: 46).

Although it was not an important town before the New Testament era, Nazareth became immortal as the home town of Jesus the Messiah. It was here that the angel appeared to Mary and informed her of the forthcoming birth of Christ (Luke 1: 26– 38). Jesus was born in Bethlehem (Luke 2). But after their sojourn in Egypt (Matt. 2: 19– 22) to escape the ruthless murders of Herod the Great (Matt. 2: 13– 18), Joseph and Mary brought the baby Jesus to Nazareth where they had lived (Matt. 2: 23).

Here Jesus was brought up as a boy (Luke 4: 16) and spent the greater part of His life (Mark 1: 9; Luke 3: 23). Apparently Jesus was well received as a young man in Nazareth (Luke 2: 42; 4: 16). But this changed after He began His ministry. His own townspeople twice rejected Him (Mark 6: 1– 6; Luke 4: 28– 30). Because of His close association with this city, Christ became known as “Jesus of Nazareth” (Luke 18: 37; 24: 19; John 1: 45).

DEAD SEA— a large lake in southern Israel at the lowest point on earth. In the Old Testament it is called the Salt Sea (Gen. 14: 3; Josh. 3: 16); the Sea of the Arabah (Deut. 3: 17); and the Eastern Sea (Ezek. 47: 18; Joel 2: 20).

Josephus, the Jewish historian, referred to this buoyant body as Lake Asphaltitis. The Arabic name is Bahr Lut, meaning, “Sea of Lot.” But from the second Christian century onward, Dead Sea has been the most common name for this unusual body of water.

The topography of the Middle East is dominated by a geologic fault that extends from Syria south through Palestine, all the way to Nyasa Lake in east-central Africa. The Dead Sea is located at the southern end of the Jordan valley at the deepest depression of this geologic fault. With a water level approximately 390 meters (1,300 feet) below sea level, the surface of the Dead Sea is the lowest point on earth. At the deepest point of the sea, on the northeast corner at the foot of the Moab Mountains, the bottom is 390 meters (1,300 feet) deeper still. The dimensions of the sea change from year to year. Many factors, such as rainfall and irrigation, contribute to this.

Except on the north where the Jordan River enters, the Dead Sea is nearly surrounded by hills and cliffs. From these hills, streams feed fresh water to the Salt Sea. In addition to these year-round streams and the Jordan River, waters flow into the sea from the winter torrents of several seasonal streams. These water sources pour millions of gallons of water each day into the Dead Sea. However, the extreme hot temperatures and sparse rainfall (about two inches a year) cause an enormous evaporation rate that has kept the water level constant over the years.

With the absence of an outlet, the water from the Dead Sea is left to evaporate, leaving behind most of its minerals. Thus it contains a very large supply of potash, bromine, magnesium chloride, salt, and other minerals. Although the value of these chemicals is enormous, making the Dead Sea the richest mineral deposit on earth, the cost of retrieving these minerals is also high. Potash extraction has been one of the most successful operations. But as technology increases, the interest in “mining” the Dead Sea will also increase.

The salt and mineral content of the Dead Sea constitutes more than 25 percent of the water. This compares with about 6 percent mineral content in the ocean. The specific gravity of the water is greater than that of the human body, making it next to impossible for any person to sink in the Dead Sea.

The Dead Sea formed part of Israel’s eastern border (Num. 34: 12; Ezek. 47: 18). In addition to the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah, many other historical and biblical events occurred along its shores.

The springs of EN GEDI provided a refuge for David in his flight from King Saul (1 Sam. 24: 1). In the Valley of Salt south of the sea, David and Amaziah won victories over the Edomites (1 Chr. 18: 12; 2 Kin. 14: 7).

Here, too, Jehoshaphat encountered the Edomites (2 Chr. 20: 1– 2; 2 Kin. 3: 8– 9). The last days of Herod the Great were spent on the eastern shore of the Dead Sea at the hot sulphur springs of Callirhoe. At Machaerus, just to the southeast, his son Herod Antipas imprisoned John the Baptist.

The prophet Ezekiel (Ezek. 47: 1– 12) saw a vision of a river issuing from the temple sanctuary in Jerusalem and flowing to the desert sea, the Dead Sea. And the prophet Zechariah wrote: “And in that day it shall be that living waters shall flow from Jerusalem, half of them toward the eastern sea [the Dead Sea] and half of them toward the western sea [the Mediterranean Sea]” (Zech. 14: 8). Prophetically this is apparently a reference to the “pure river of water of life” said to flow from the throne of God in John’s vision (Rev. 22: 1– 2).

The great fortress of Masada guarded the southern approaches toward Palestine, perhaps the road crossing from Moab to Judea at el-Lisan. Herod refortified this strong fortress, which finally fell in A.D. 73 to the Romans under Flavius Silva. He also refortified the Maccabean stronghold at Machaerus on the eastern shore.

The discovery of the DEAD SEA SCROLLS in caves on the northwest shore of the Dead Sea near QUMRAN has mustered renewed historical interest in this area. The remains of the ESSENE community at Qumran and the search for scrolls in the more than 250 surrounding caves focused the eyes of the world on a tiny sea devoid of marine life but bristling with mineral potential and archaeological promise.

ESSENES — a religious community that existed in Palestine from the second century B.C. until the Jewish war with Rome (A.D. 66– 73). The Essenes were noted for their strict discipline and their isolation from others who did not observe their way of life. Although the Bible never mentions the Essenes, they are described by several ancient historians.

The Essenes are an important part of the background to the New Testament, showing the beliefs and practices of one Jewish religious group at the time of John the Baptist and Jesus. People have been especially interested in the Essenes since the discovery of the DEAD SEA SCROLLS at QUMRAN. The people who lived at Qumran probably were a group of Essenes.

Individual Essenes did not own any private property. Instead, they shared all their possessions with others in their community. They avoided any show of luxury and ate very simple meals. They wore simple clothes. The Essenes were also known for their careful observance of the laws of Moses as they understood them. They were stricter about keeping the Sabbath than any other Jews, even the PHARISEES. They were concerned about being ritually clean themselves and about eating food that was ritually pure.

Essenes lived in the towns of Palestine in the days of Jesus. They were famous for their hospitality. An Essene traveling from one place to another knew he would be looked after by other Essenes, although he had never met them. The Essenes were also known for taking care of the sick and elderly. They were interested in medicines; in fact, some people think that the name Essenes means “healers.”

The Essenes would arise before sunrise for prayer. Then they would work until about midday, when they would bathe— to make sure they were ritually clean— before eating. Afterwards they would work again until the evening meal.

Anyone who wanted to become an Essene was required to hand over all he owned to the community. He would then be given the typical Essene white robe. Only after he had shown that he was trustworthy for a full year would he be allowed to use the community’s water for purification. And he had to prove that he was reliable for two more years before he could become a full member. Then, after promising to keep the Essene rules, he became a member and was allowed to take part in the community meals. But if he should break the Essene rule, he would be expelled from the community.

The Essenes believed that the souls of people were immortal and would be rewarded or punished after death. They had a special interest in angels, and some were known for making accurate predictions about the future. They avoided taking part in the services of the temple in Jerusalem. Instead, they worshiped God in their own communities.

Some of the Essenes’ beliefs and practices are similar to those in parts of the New Testament. The ritual washings of the Essenes bring to mind the baptism preached and practiced by John the Baptist. But John baptized people only once, while the Essenes’ washings took place every day. And Jesus told his followers not to use oaths, just as the Essenes avoided oaths.

The Essenes’ practice of COMMUNITY OF GOODS is also similar to what happened in the early church in Jerusalem (Acts 2: 44– 45). But again there is a difference. Christians sold their property of their own free will, while this was a requirement in the Essene community. Like the Essenes, the early Christians were soon known for their generous hospitality. A major difference was that the early Christians did not practice all the rules about the Sabbath and ritual purity that were so important to the Essenes. Above all, Christians believed that Jesus was the Messiah and Lord; the Essenes as a group rejected Jesus and continued to wait for God’s salvation.

DEAD SEA SCROLLS— the popular name for about 800 scrolls and fragments of scrolls that were found in eleven caves near Khirbet “ruin of” Qumran on the northwest shore of the Dead Sea in 1947 and shortly thereafter. Taken together, these leather and PAPYRUS (primitive paper) manuscripts were a find without precedent in the history of modern archaeology. The Dead Sea Scrolls have helped scholars to: (1) establish the date of a Hebrew Bible no later than A.D. 70; (2) reconstruct various details of the history of the Holy Land from the fourth century B.C. to A.D. 135; and (3) clarify the relationship between Jewish religious traditions and early Christianity.

The Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered when a Bedouin shepherd, who was looking for a stray goat, discovered several large clay pots containing ancient scrolls on the floor of a cave above Wadi Qumran. After some delay, several scholars were shown the manuscripts by dealers in antiquities. When it was determined that these manuscripts were extremely old, scholars began their search in earnest. Slowly other valuable scrolls were found, gathered, carefully unrolled, and published.

It took twenty years (1947– 1967) to bring together the various texts of the Dead Sea Scrolls. Because the Scrolls were written between 250 B.C. and A.D. 68, they offer an invaluable source for understanding the beliefs, community life, and use of the Bible of one group of Jews, probably the Essenes, who were active during the time Jesus lived.

Jericho, a town Jesus visited, is only 13 kilometers (8 miles) north of Khirbet Qumran. Some scholars believe that some of the early followers of Jesus or John the Baptist may have come from the Qumran Community.

Some of the writings of this community remind the reader of the themes of “repentance” and the “coming of the new age” that were preached by John the Baptist and Jesus. However, there is no evidence that the followers of John or Jesus joined the Qumran group. The writings are the work of Jewish sectarians, written mainly in Hebrew, with a few in Aramaic and some fragments in Greek.

Some of the scrolls were written to protest the lawless priest who was in charge of the temple worship in Jerusalem. It is likely that the main reason for building this monastic-like community near the Dead Sea was to get away from the “wicked priest” and to hear the words of the “teacher of righteousness.”

Not all of the Dead Sea Scrolls have been translated or published. Probably the most interesting ones were found in Cave 1 not far from Qumran. Seven scrolls were found preserved in fairly good condition. They had been carefully stored in large clay jars.

Except for Esther, all the books of the Old Testament were found in part or in full. Apocryphal (see APOCRYPHA) and pseudepigraphal (see PSEUDEPIGRAPHA) writings were found scattered in various caves. Fragments of Tobit and Ecclesiasticus from the Apocrypha give evidence of the importance of these works for the community.

The Book of Jubilees, the Book of Enoch, some of the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, the Sayings of Moses, the Vision of Amram, the Psalms of Joshua, the Prayer of Nabonidus, and the Book of Mysteries are a few of the pseudepigraphal works discovered.

A number of hymns or psalms that were found and are included in this category are: The Hymn of the Initiates, The Book of Hymns (The Thanksgiving Hymns), Psalm 151, Poems from a Qumran Hymnal, Lament for Zion, and Hymns of Triumph.

The writings that were found can be listed under the following categories: Biblical Manuscripts: Isaiah scroll (complete), Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy, among many others. Some are represented by multiple copies.

QUMRAN, KHIRBET — an ancient ruin on the northwestern shore of the Dead Sea. In 1947 a wandering goat herder looking for his goats in caves above the dry river bed, or wadi, of Qumran found several large jars. These jars contained ancient scrolls that have since become known as the DEAD SEA SCROLLS.

Following this discovery, the area was opened for extensive archaeological research. From 1951 to 1956 excavation of the area revealed more scrolls, as well as dated coins, pottery, and fragments from scrolls. These items made it possible to connect the Dead Sea Scrolls discovered in nearby caves to the Qumran community, which lived in Khirbet Qumran.

Excavations reveal that Khirbet Qumran was a Jewish community that was active from 130 B.C. to A.D. 135. In 31 B.C. an earthquake destroyed the settlement and made it uninhabitable. In 4 B.C. another group of Jews rebuilt on the site, enlarged it, and occupied it until the war with Rome in A.D. 68, when the Roman garrison sent to destroy Jericho took command of this outpost in the desert. Jewish zealots reestablished themselves at Qumran in A.D. 90 and defended their position until A.D. 135, when the Romans again fought and conquered Jewish resistance.

Some of the remains of walls and pottery in Khirbet Qumran date to the eighth and seventh centuries B.C., the time of King Uzziah of Judah. The significant period is much later, around 50 B.C. to A.D. 68, when a group of pious Jews built and occupied the fortress, or monastery-like dwelling, at Qumran. The people who occupied the fortress committed themselves to a disciplined life of obedience to the Law as interpreted by the leader of the community, known as the Teacher of Righteousness.

Some of the writings found here may be a collection of teachings from the Teacher of Righteousness himself. The exact identity of the people who lived in Qumran in this later period is not known. Scholars have suggested worship at the temple in Jerusalem. The Qumran community sought to purify itself from the sin of those who distorted the law. Large baths or pools were found in Khirbet Qumran and were probably used for daily ritual baths. Twelve hundred grave sites were found just east of the ruin. The skeletal remains were simply laid to rest in the ground without any burial objects.

This indicates that a large number of people inhabited Qumran at one time. Josephus and Philo, both first-century A.D. Jewish writers, describe a group known as ESSENES who occupied communities similar to Qumran. This has led some scholars to the conviction that Essenes were the residents of Khirbet Qumran and were the authors of the Dead Sea Scrolls.

During the Jewish wars with Rome (A.D. 66– 73 and A.D. 132– 135) ZEALOTS joined the people of Qumran for what they believed to be the final war with evil. The Romans won the war and destroyed the memory of these people until the discovery of the caves at Qumran in 1947.

JERUSALEM (city of peace)— sacred city and well-known capital of Palestine during Bible times. The earliest known name for Jerusalem was Urushalem. Salem, of which Melchizedek was king (Gen. 14: 18), was a natural abbreviation for Jerusalem. Thus, Jerusalem appears in the Bible as early as the time of Abraham, although the city had probably been inhabited for centuries before that time.

The city of Jerusalem is mentioned directly in the Bible for the first time during the struggle of Joshua and the Israelites to take the land of Canaan (Josh. 10: 1– 4). Their efforts to take the city were unsuccessful, although the areas surrounding it were taken and the land was given to the tribe of Judah. Still remaining in the fortress of the city itself were the Jebusites. Thus, the city was called Jebus.

Jerusalem under David. After the death of Saul, the first king of the United Kingdom of the Hebrew people, David was named the new king of Israel. One of his first efforts was to unite the tribes of the north and south by capturing Jerusalem from the Jebusites, making the city the political and religious capital of the Kingdom (1 Chr. 11: 4– 9). Because it was captured during his reign, Jerusalem also came to be known as the “City of David.”

The city is often referred to by this title in the Bible. David built a palace in the section of Jerusalem that served previously as the Jebusite stronghold. This section, situated in the highest part of the city, frequently is referred to as Mount Zion. The location was probably selected because it was easily defended from invaders.

Jerusalem has little to recommend it as a capital city, when compared to other major cities of the ancient world. It was an inland city not situated near a seaport. Moreover, it was not near the major trade routes used during that time. Why, then, did David select Jerusalem as the capital of his nation? The reasons are twofold.

First, Jerusalem was centrally located between the northern and southern tribes. Thus, it was geographically convenient for the nation. The central location of the capital city tended to unite the people into one kingdom.

Second, the topography of the city made it easy to defend. Jerusalem was situated on a hill. The eastern and western sides of the city consisted of valleys that made invasion by opposing forces difficult. The southern portion consisted of ravines that made an attack from this position unwise. The best point from which to attack Jerusalem was the north, which had the highest elevation of any portion of the city. It was from this position that attacks on the city were made in the centuries following the establishment of Jerusalem as the capital.

David also made Jerusalem the religious capital of the nation. He moved the ARK OF THE COVENANT, which had been kept at Kirjath-jearim (Josh. 15: 9) to Jerusalem. One of his desires was to build a temple in the capital city, but he was prevented from completing this task. The prophet Nathan instructed him that God did not want him to build the temple because his hands had been involved in so much bloodshed (1 Chronicles 17).

David did make preparation for the building of the temple, however, leaving the actual building task to Solomon, his son and successor. During the reign of David, Jerusalem was firmly established politically and religiously as the capital city of the Israelite nation. The selection of this site resulted in the unification of the nation as David had hoped. But the selection of Jerusalem as the capital was more than a choice by a human king. Divine providence was also involved. Jerusalem was referred to as “the place which the Lord your God shall choose out of all your tribes to put his name there” (Deut. 12: 5, 11, 14, 18, 21).

Jerusalem under Solomon. The glory of Jerusalem, begun under David, reached its greatest heights under Solomon. Solomon proceeded to construct the temple about which David had dreamed (2 Chronicles 3; 4). He also extended the borders of the city to new limits. Because surrounding nations were engaged in internal strife, Jerusalem was spared from invasions from opposing forces during Solomon’s administration. After completing the temple, Solomon built the palace complex, a series of five structures.

These other buildings were the “house of the Forest of Lebanon,” an assembly hall and a storage place for arms; an anteroom for the throne, where distinguished guests were received; the throne room, an ornately carved enclosure that contained the throne, which was made of carved ivory inlaid with gold; the king’s palace, which was very large so as to hold the king’s family; and the residence for Solomon’s Egyptian wives, which adjoined the king’s palace.

Solomon also planted vineyards, orchards, and gardens that contained all types of trees and shrubs. These were watered by streams and pools that flowed through the complex. Unfortunately, this splendor came to an end with the death of Solomon about 931 B.C. The division of the kingdom into two separate nations after Solomon’s reign resulted in the relapse of Jerusalem to the status of a minor city.

Jerusalem under Siege. After the death of Solomon, the division that occurred in the kingdom resulted in the ten northern tribes establishing their own capital, first at Shechem and later at Samaria. The southern tribes, consisting of Judah and Benjamin, retained Jerusalem as the capital. Although separated politically from Jerusalem, the northern tribes continued their allegiance to the “holy city” by occasionally coming there for worship.

In 722 B.C., the northern tribes were conquered by the Assyrians. Many of the citizens of the northern kingdom of Israel were deported to the Assyrian nation, never to return to the “promised land.” But the Southern Kingdom, with Jerusalem as its capital, continued to exist as an independent nation. Although occasionally threatened and plundered by surrounding nations, Jerusalem remained intact until 586 B.C.

At that time, Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylonia, ravaged the city and carried the inhabitants into captivity. During the siege of the city, Jerusalem’s beautiful temple was destroyed and the walls around the city were torn down. While a few inhabitants remained in the city, the glory of Jerusalem was gone. The memory of Jerusalem among the Jewish people, however, would not die. They continued to grieve and to remember the City of David with affection. Psalm 137 is a good example of their expression of grief: “By the rivers of Babylon, there we sat down, yea, we wept, when we remembered Zion. We hanged our harps upon the willows in the midst thereof. For there they that carried us away captive required of us a song; and they that wasted us required of us mirth, saying, Sing us one of the songs of Zion. How shall we sing the LORD’s song in a strange land? If I forget thee, O Jerusalem, let my right hand forget her cunning. If I do not remember thee, let my tongue cleave to the roof of my mouth; if I prefer not Jerusalem above my chief joy.”

The Restoration. For more than half a century the Jews remained captives in Babylonia, and their beloved Jerusalem lay in ruins. But this changed when Cyrus, king of Persia, defeated the Babylonians. He allowed the Jewish captives to return to Jerusalem to restore the city. Zerubbabel was the leader of a group that left Babylon in 538 B.C. to return to Jerusalem to rebuild the temple. After a period of over twenty years, the temple was restored, although it was not as lavish as Solomon’s original temple had been.

Under the leadership of NEHEMIAH, a second group of Jewish exiles returned to the holy city to restore the wall around the city. Through a masterful strategy of organization and determination, “the wall was finished on the twenty-fifth day of the month of Elul, in fifty-two days” (Neh. 6: 15).

During the succeeding years of domination by the Persian Empire, Jerusalem apparently enjoyed peace and prosperity. When ALEXANDER the Great conquered Persia, the Jews were reluctant to pledge loyalty to the Greek ruler, preferring instead to remain under Persian rule. Only by tactful concessions of religious privileges was Alexander able to win the loyalty of the Jews.

Jerusalem during the Period between the Testaments. The years that followed the death of Alexander brought many contending armies into conflict in the territory that surrounded Jerusalem. But the greatest threat to the Jews was the onslaught of Greek or Hellenistic culture, which threatened to erode the Jewish way of life.

 When the Jews resisted Greek cultural influence, the Greek leader ANTIOCHUS IV Epiphanes attacked the city and destroyed the temple. Many of the inhabitants fled the city, taking refuge in the surrounding hills. Led by JUDAS, these inhabitants later recaptured Jerusalem and restored the temple. The successors to Judas Maccabeus were able to gain independence and to set up Jerusalem as the capital of a newly independent Judea— a position the city had not enjoyed since its defeat by the Babylonians four centuries before. This situation prevailed until the Roman Empire conquered Judea and reduced Jerusalem to a city-state under Roman domination. This was the situation that prevailed during New Testament times.

Jerusalem in the New Testament. The wise men who sought Jesus after His birth came to Jerusalem because this was considered the city of the king (Matt. 2: 1– 2). Although Jesus was born in Bethlehem, Jerusalem played a significant role in His life and ministry. It was to Jerusalem that He went when He was twelve years old. Here He amazed the temple leaders with His knowledge and wisdom (Luke 2: 47).

In Jerusalem He cleansed the temple, chasing away the moneychangers who desecrated the holy place with their selfish practices. And, finally, it was outside Jerusalem where He was crucified, buried, and resurrected.

The record of the New Testament church indicates that Jerusalem continued to play a significant role in the early spread of Christianity. After the martyrdom of Stephen, the early believers scattered from Jerusalem to various parts of the Mediterranean world (Acts 8: 1). But Jerusalem always was the place to which they returned for significant events.

For example, Acts 15 records that when the early church leaders sought to reconcile their differences about the acceptance of Gentile believers, they met in Jerusalem. Thus, the city became a holy city for Christians as well as Jews. The Jerusalem of New Testament times contained a temple that had been built by Herod, the Roman leader. Although the main portion of the temple was completed in eighteen months, other areas of this building were still under construction during Jesus’ ministry. In fact, the temple was not completed until A.D. 67— only three years before it was finally destroyed by the Roman leader, Titus, and the Roman army.

As Jesus had prophesied in Matthew 24, the city of Jerusalem was completely destroyed in A.D. 70. The temple was destroyed, and the high priesthood and the SANHEDRIN were abolished. Eventually, a Roman city was erected on the site, and Jerusalem was regarded as forbidden ground for the Jews.

Modern Jerusalem. In 1919, under a ruling by British officials in Palestine, Jerusalem regained its status as a capital city. During the following three decades, numerous Jews, whose ancestors had been barred from the city, settled in and around Jerusalem. A new city, whose population was predominantly Jewish, was constructed west of the site of the old city.

Following the Arab-Israeli War of 1948– 49, the new city was allotted to the Jews, while the old city remained in Muslim hands. Less than two decades later, as a result of what has become known as the Six-Day War, the old city and the surrounding countryside were captured by Israel. It has remained occupied by the descendants of the biblical Israelites until the present day.

Topography. Unlike many other ancient cities, Jerusalem is neither a harbor city nor a city situated on trade routes. It sits about 800 meters (2,500 feet) above sea level in mountainous country about 60 kilometers (37 miles) from the Mediterranean Sea and 23 kilometers (14 miles) from the northern end of the Dead Sea.

The site seems unattractive because it lacks an adequate supply of water, is surrounded by relatively infertile land, and is hemmed in by deep valleys and difficult roads. But these disadvantages were probably the major factors that led to its establishment as a capital city. Its location made the city a fortress that could be easily defended against attack— a very important consideration in Old Testament times.

Topographically, Jerusalem was built on two triangle-shaped ridges that converge to the south. On the east lay the ravine known as the KIDRON Valley. On the west lay the deep gorge known as the Valley of HINNOM. At the southern border of the city, the two valleys converged. Only on the northern border was the city vulnerable to attack. The lack of a water supply was solved by using a natural spring that flowed from the Kidron Valley.

During the reign of Hezekiah in the Old Testament period, this spring was diverted underground so that it flowed into the city. Thus, the inhabitants of the city had water, while invading armies did not. According to 2 Chronicles 32: 30, “Hezekiah…stopped the upper watercourse of Gihon, and brought it straight down to the west side of the City of David.” Hezekiah’s new water supply helped save the city when it was attacked by the Assyrians a short time later (701 B.C.).

Jerusalem is considered a holy city not only by Jews and Christians but also by Muslims. The Book of Revelation speaks of a “new Jerusalem” (Rev. 21: 2), a heavenly city fashioned by God Himself for those who are known as His people.

KIDRON (gloomy) - a valley on the eastern slope of Jerusalem through which a seasonal brook of the same name runs. The meaning of the name is fitting, in view of the great strife that has surrounded the Kidron throughout Bible times.

A torrent in the winter rains, it contains little water in the summer months. The ravine of the Kidron valley begins north of Jerusalem, running past the temple, Calvary, the Garden of Gethsemane, and the Mount of Olives to form a well-defined limit to Jerusalem on its eastern side. From there the valley and the brook reach into the Judean wilderness, where the land is so dry that the brook takes the name of Wady en-Nar or “fire wady.”

Finally its dreary course brings it to the Dead Sea. Kidron was the brook crossed by David while fleeing from Absalom (2 Sam. 15: 23, 30). While the brook is not large, the deep ravine is a significant geographical obstacle. When David crossed the Kidron and turned east to retreat from Absalom to the safety of Hebron, he signaled his abandonment of Jerusalem (2 Sam. 15: 23).

On the west side of the Kidron is the spring of GIHON which King Hezekiah tapped for city water before the Assyrians besieged Jerusalem. Hezekiah also blocked the Kidron and lesser springs in the valley to deny water to the besieging Assyrians.

Asa, Hezekiah, and Josiah, the great reforming kings of Judah, burned the idols and objects of worship of the pagan cults that they suppressed in the Kidron valley (1 Kin. 15: 13). Beside the brook King Asa destroyed and burned his mother’s idol of Asherah (1 Kin. 15: 13).

After this, the valley became the regular receptacle for the impurities and abominations of idol worship when they were removed from the temple and destroyed (2 Kin. 23: 4, 6, 12; 2 Chr. 29: 16; 30: 14). From the Kidron valley Nehemiah inspected the walls of Jerusalem at night, probably because the walls were clearly visible along that side (Neh. 2: 15). In the time of Josiah, this valley was the common cemetery of Jerusalem (2 Kin. 23: 6; Jer. 26: 23). When Jesus left Jerusalem for the Garden of Gethsemane on the night of His arrest, He crossed the Kidron along the way.

HINNOM, VALLEY OF - a deep, narrow ravine west and south of Jerusalem. At the HIGH PLACES of Baal in the Valley of Hinnom, parents sacrificed their children as a burnt offering to Molech (2 Kin. 23: 10).

Ahaz and Manasseh, kings of Judah, were both guilty of this awful wickedness (2 Chr. 28: 3; 33: 6). But good King Josiah destroyed the pagan altars to remove this temptation from the people of Judah. The prophet Jeremiah foretold that God would judge this awful abomination of human sacrifice and would cause such a destruction that “the Valley of the Son of Hinnom” would become known as “the Valley of Slaughter” (Jer. 7: 31– 32; 19: 2, 6; 32: 35).

The place was also called “Tophet.” Apparently, the Valley of Hinnom was used as the garbage dump for the city of Jerusalem. Refuse, waste materials, and dead animals were burned here. Fires continually smoldered, and smoke from the burning debris rose day and night. Hinnom thus became a graphic symbol of woe and judgment and of the place of eternal punishment called HELL.

Translated into Greek, the Hebrew “Valley of Hinnom” becomes Gehenna, which is used twelve times in the New Testament (eleven times by Jesus and once by James), each time translated as “hell” (Matt. 5: 22; Mark 9: 43, 45, 47; Luke 12: 5; James 3: 6).

JEHOSHAPHAT, VALLEY OF - a valley in which, according to Joel 3: 2, 12, God will judge the nations at the end of this age. According to Jewish tradition, the Valley of Jehoshaphat was that part of the Kidron Valley between the temple and the Mount of Olives. The name Jehoshaphat means “the Lord is judge.” The name may refer to a symbolic “valley of decision” (Joel 3: 14) that is connected with divine judgments instead of a literal geographical place.

 

Youngblood, Ronald F. Nelson's Illustrated Bible Dictionary: New and Enhanced Edition (pp. 573-574). Thomas Nelson. Kindle Edition.